Culture-Bound Syndromes

Mental health functioning is important regarding a person’s well-being, being able to interact with others in a healthy manner, and contributes many things to individual’s through communities and society. Culture-bound syndromes are conditions that are specific to particular cultures. The cultures that experience, express, and deal with culture-bound syndromes in different ways is extremely common. LaVeist and Thomas (2005) state that â€Å"culture-bound syndromes are clusters of symptoms more common in some cultures than others† (p. 01). There are symptoms that are found in all nations, cultures, and similarly recognizable worldwide but yet are different at the same time. Culture-Bound Syndromes Culture-bound syndromes, also known as culture-specific syndromes, have been defined as â€Å"clusters of symptoms more common in some cultures than in other cultural groups† (LaVeist & Thomas, 2005, p. 101). Although many mental disorders are well known in sp ecific cultures, these disorders are at least somewhat conditioned by the culture in which they are found.More importantly, the topic of culture-bound syndromes has â€Å"been a controversial topic since they have reflected the different opinions of anthropologists and psychiatrists† (WHO, 1992). Consequently, researchers have had some difficulty emphasizing culture specific dimensions of certain syndromes. Some studies have suggested that the most beneficial aspect of defining culture-bound syndromes is that they represent an acceptable way to define specific cultural responses to certain situations.According to Guarnaccia and Rogler (1999), â€Å"researchers have referred to culture bound research on culture-bound syndromes serves strategically to tighten the integration between cultural and clinical knowledge, while providing insights into issues of diagnostic universality and culturally specificity† (p. 1326). The role of biology in the development of culture-bound syndromes, therefore, has proved to be of debate. Interest in culture-bound syndromes has increased over the last few decades.Similarly the treatment in a diagnostic classification treatment of these disorders has over the last several years gained attention (Guarnaccia & Rogler, 1999). Clinicians are presented with plenty of challenges when dealing with culture-bound syndromes such as how to diagnose them. Several questions clinicians present include the stability of culture-bound syndromes, the common nature of these disorders across cultures, and the similarity of symptoms between syndromes (APA, 1994).Similarly, the question of whether culture-bound syndromes should be included in the diagnostic criteria of current psychological illnesses or as individual entities themselves is also debatable (APA, 1994). Another issue concerns the relationship between culture bound syndromes and standard diagnostic systems such as the DSM. Of specific concern is that they do not easily con form to the categories within the DSM due to significant differences across cultures.These differences are due to differing views of self and reality as well as the different ways cultures express certain disorders (APA, 1994). Guarnaccia and Rogler (1999) referring to the DSM classification system in that it addresses certain concerns about differing cultural boundaries, and in dealing with the classification methods certainly deal with the reliability and validity of the non-universality of cultural experiences in relation to mental illnesses.The fact that each culture-bound syndrome is individually associated with particular sets of illness responses, it is difficult to define precisely the definition of the culture-bound syndromes as a unit. Culture-bound syndromes as therefore comprised as several different illnesses and afflictions. LaVeist and Thomas (2005) thoroughly expresses the dynamic nature of culture-bound syndromes when they state: The symptoms of mental disorders are found in all nations and in all cultures; there are recognizable symptoms that are common worldwide.Mental health researchers have not yet been able to determine whether culture bound syndromes are indicative of one or more possibilities that include distinct disorders that exist only in specific cultures, and reflect different ways in which individuals from different cultures express mental illness, as well as reflecting different ways in which the social and cultural environment interact with genes to produce disorders, or any combination of these. (pp. 01) With the following information in mind, it should be noted that not all disorders are considered pathological; some behaviors are seen as ways of expressing and communicating distress to members of a certain culture and are seen as culturally accepted responses (APA, 1994). In fact, cultures experience, express, and cope with feelings of distress in various ways that may counter what Western societies see as common. Furthermor e, at times these cultural differences are referred to as idioms of distress.Understanding the expression of these idioms (for example somatization, which is a physical representation of distress that is typically accompanied by symptoms such as abdominal or chest pain, heart palpitations, dizziness or vertigo, and blurred vision) allows clinicians to be more aware of the diagnoses they give (LaVeist & Thomas, 2005). Culture-bound syndromes can also appear to be similar within several cultures. Furthermore, a culture specific syndrome can be categorized by various things.The APA (1994) characterizes culture specific syndromes as the following: categorization as a disease in the culture, familiarity within a widespread culture, people with lack of familiarity of specific conditions from other cultures, and the use of folk medicines that particular cultures use as a conditioned sense of usage within a specific culture. More specifically, culture-bound syndromes are not the same as geographically localized diseases with specific biological causes, such as kuru or sleeping sickness, or genetic conditions limited to certain populations, like sickle cell anemia (APA, 1994).Discussions of culture-bound syndromes have often concerned the amount of different categories of syndromes present in the world today. Many culture-bound syndromes are actually specific cultural representations of illnesses found elsewhere in the world. Some of these responses are not necessarily psychological illnesses but rather are explanatory mechanisms like witchcraft (Simons & Hughes, 1985). Beliefs in witchcraft could seem to be a little farfetched as a type of culture-bound illness; however, it is supposed that witchcraft can lead to behaviors that can be seen as disordered.This concept is of particular concern to medical and psychiatric anthropologists because culture-bound syndromes provide examples of how cultural specific symptoms can evolve into psychological illnesses. Just because these responses may not begin as disorders, however, does not devalue the fact that they are illnesses and should be taken seriously (Simons & Hughes, 1985). The American Psychiatric Association (1994), states that the Western scientific perspective characterizes culture specific syndromes as imaginary and has no way of clearly being able to show why someone cannot understand that perspective.According to the APA (1994), physicians will share many things about a disorder with the patients and help them try to understand how they see their particular disorder; they also use folk medicine treatment if the patient asks for that if it is a culture-bound syndrome. Another thing is that a physician may falsify a patients perspective to offer folk medicine treatments that are available or maybe for a new and improved treatment strategy. Lastly, the clinician should educate the patient on being able to recognize their condition as a culture-bound syndrome so that the clinician m ay treat them as they see fit.Guarnaccia and Rogler (1994) said that specific conditions are very challenging within medical care and illustrate rarely discussed aspects of fundamental aspects of physician to patient relationships, a diagnosis that is the best fit for the way of looking at the body and its diseases are easily negotiated if both parties can be found. Restrictions of the diagnostic classification systems of culture-bound syndromes have complications with certain additions within the iagnostic classification systems and have raised many questions. It is not quite clear on whether culture-bound syndromes are actually different from conventional syndromes or if they are just categorically different. Some people like to argue that some culture-bound syndromes are not just limited to specific cultures but are widely experienced throughout the world. Many of the syndromes that have been labeled as culture- bound are compromised by many mixtures of indicators that have been witnessed collectively.Culture-bound syndromes are lacking in diagnostic regularity and legitimacy making it extremely difficult to reach widespread straightforward criteria to describe these illnesses because of problems in language. â€Å"In the development of the DSM, its designers tried to create a diagnostic system that was well-suited with a broader and more worldwide medical organization system that is, the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death (ICD) developed by the World Health Organization† (WHO, 1992).Therefore, the DSM implements a medical model of diagnosis for which many mental disorders, regardless of whether their background is biological or psychological, is viewed as mental illnesses and requires treatment. Furthermore, this model is implicit and assuming that mental disorders are under the compromise of behavioral or psychological symptoms that can form definable patterns or distinct forms of a particular syndrome (Guarnacc ia & Rogler, 1994).The authors of the DSM definitely made a careful choice to accept a clear-cut categorization of mental illnesses. It is important to notice, however, that the DSM does not make the assumption that all mental disorders are discreet entities with absolutely no boundaries. Finally, before methodology is discussed, examples of what culture-bound syndromes actually are is important to include. The case of Koro â€Å"provides an example of shifting diagnostic classifications because of changing decisions about which symptoms are predominant.For example, Koro was first categorized as a somatoform disorder on the basis of the perception of the afflicted person’s intense preoccupation with a somatic concern, the retraction of the penis† (Bernstein & Gaw, 1990). â€Å"More recently, Koro was categorized as an anxiety disorder and noted that others have associated Koro with panic disorders† (Levine & Gaw, 1995, p. 1323). Second, the debate of the relationship between culture-bound syndromes and psychiatric disorders according to symptoms is evident in the case of Latah Levine & Gaw, 1995). More specifically, â€Å"a debate about Latah focuses on which theoretical perspective should prevail; Simons and Hughes argued that the predominant feature of Latah is the neurophysiological startle reflex, culturally elaborated into Latah in Malaysia† (Simons & Hughes, 1985, p. 1323). Therefore, each disorder represents responses specific to certain cultures while also explaining the different ways cultures respond to events. MethodUnderstanding culture-bound syndromes requires looking at multiple sources that give a broad range of information regarding the topic. For this paper I felt that it was necessary to use the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders because it gives plenty of information regarding culture-bound syndromes. The Diagnostic and Statistical Ma nual of Mental Disorders is extremely useful in the fact that it allows a health educator to become more acquainted with culture-bound syndromes that are unique and unusual to our specific field of study.Guarnaccia and Rogler and their research on culture-bound syndromes is informational in that they give a comprehensive look at culture-bound syndromes through the classification system and allow one to focus more on specific syndromes, such as Koro and Latah. LaVeist and Thomas from Chapter 5 in Minority Populations and Health are really informational along the lines of mental health, mental illness, and mental health problems.They give a more thorough explanation of basic background information on the previously stated information and topics and yet still remain in-depth when looking at specific aspects of mental health. They describe mental health, mental health problems, and mental illness in more detail and allow for the interpretation of others reading their work to help fuel o ne’s own judgments on those topics. I also used various sources to address other topics relevant to culture-bound syndromes. For example, Bernstein and Gaw specifically addressed Koro, which I used as an example of a culture-bound syndrome.Another example, Simon and Hughes addressed Latah, I felt it was necessary to use examples of both Koro and Latah to help show what culture-bound syndromes were exactly and what they meant to cultures that were not American and how the cultures that were affected by these syndromes. The method I used for identifying and locating sources mainly dealt with trying to find a broad aspect of culture-bound syndromes and basic information on this particular subject. The rationale for choosing the specific sources was along the lines of being able to find enough useable information that could allow me to get my points across.When searching the electronic databases and the library at Central Arkansas University I was mainly looking for a broad range of topics that could fulfill the various information needs I had for this paper. I wanted to look at the topic on multiple levels, including cross-cultural, the way culture-bound syndromes affect others, and the ways in which these disorders are specifically associated with mental illness. Analysis & Discussion The grouping of culture-bound syndromes into qualified diagnostic categories usually is based on a perception of their principal indicators.But the bigger issue itself of classifying a majority of symptoms is definitely challenging, as exemplified in the cases of Koro and Latah. Problems most definitely arose when conclusions were built on general, typical descriptions of the syndrome that are then linked with the textbook criteria of psychiatric diagnoses. The present method of studying the same set of readings and engaging in the classification process with them does not, from my viewpoint, promote the consideration of culture-bound syndromes.The approach of trying to find the right classificatory organization by basing it on the similarity between certain symptoms that include maybe one or two of the same grouping within the syndrome as well as the DSM groupings as the main organizing arrangement of significance to the culture-bound syndromes is not expected to produce new answers to the questions about the classification system. There are many syndromes that have different names that are seen from a variety of cultures that are basically the same set of behaviors, but culturally are explained in slightly different ways.Occasionally, on certain remote instances the arrangement of the behavior that is recognized as a culture-bound syndrome occurs in an area that is far from individuals where the termed and elaborated syndrome is an endemic. Conclusion & Recommendations Some major challenges that can help the classification system out is that the same distress responses may be stated differently as a result of cultural cues, language variances , and changes in experience.In addition, the American Psychiatric Association (1994) notes that some examples of cultural structuring and or human behavior knowledge regarding illnesses are stated in Western classification systems more commonly known as the DSM. Thus, the challenge to categorize culture bound syndromes, whether as diverse syndromes or as part of an already categorized illness, is an activity that is inseparably tied to a certain culture. Also it has been suggested the ways that cultures and their social methods can limit the expansion of an internationally valid system of identification.Guarnaccia and Rogler (1999) suggests that classification of culture-bound syndromes are better than recording symptoms due to the fact that examining the context and symbolic structure of cultural reactions yield a better turnout. The main themes of most discussions over culture-bound syndromes is that such illnesses personalize symptom patterns that are somewhat linked in some sign ificant way to the specific cultural setting in which they have occurred within.Because most of the syndromes are separate from the theoretical outlook of the Western medicine systems, they are quite often disregarded in serious analyses and therefore are carelessly overlooked for helpful mediations. These disorders appear to reside in a figurative twilight zone of psychiatric diagnosis and are viewed as highly mysterious. To nearly everyone, the behavior and outlooks common to one’s own culture seem natural and/or rational in most parts, while those derived from other cultures appear abnormal, culture-specific, or arising from irregular conditions.Most clinicians are more than likely to think through the justification of culture when presenting a patient’s problem, especially when he or she is from a cultural setting other than the clinician’s own. However, cultural factors are a considerable part of every disorder and expressive in the outlook of specific comp onents. Nonetheless, all psychiatric illnesses are culture bound to a certain degree. The divisions of psychiatric illnesses of culture-bound syndromes are those found only in inadequate cultural areas.Though culture does shape all illness behavior, it is always hypothetically informative to ask why any given syndrome appears to be present or not in a given culture. In recent years, the mindfulness of cultural diversity and of the role of culture in all illnesses has greatly been improved. Because of the interpretations into the relationships between individual psychopathology and culturally firm practices and beliefs that the study of culture-bound syndromes offers, an interest in these syndromes has grown greatly over the past several years.Health educators in dealing with culture-bound syndromes would be able to help Center for Disease Control officials in many aspects. Since culture-bound syndromes are very common among many cultures around the world, health educators who deal w ith particular syndromes could help assess and implement many programs that can help with assessing many syndromes that afflict many cultures throughout the world. In a classroom setting, health educators can teach students how to spot syndromes and treat them to an extent in which helps their particular culture, community or society.Health education programs that are implemented within colleges and universities can stress that culture-bound syndromes are very serious and need to be treated like any other mental health disease that we as educators deal with and try to diagnose every day. I believe that policies and procedures that are already implemented within our culture are doing a good job in trying to handle culture-bound syndromes. Educationally, I believe that there are definitely some great programs that try to help with identifying and dealing with culture-bound syndromes.References American Psychiatric Association (APA). 1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental D isorders, Fourth Edition: DSM-IV. Washington, DC. Bernstein, R. L. , & Gaw, A. C. (1990). Koro: proposed classification for DSM-IV. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1670-1674. Guarnaccia, P. J. , & Rogler, L. H. (1999). Research on culture-bound syndromes: New directions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(9), 1322-1327. Hall, T. M. (2008). Culture-bound syndromes in China. Retrieved from http://homepage. mac. com/mccajor/cbs. html LaVeist, T. A. , & Thomas, D. (2005). Mental health. In T. A. LaVeist (Ed. Minority populations and health: An introduction to health disparities in the United States (pp. 83-107). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Levine, R. E. , & Gaw, A. C. (1995). Culture-bound syndromes. Psychiatry Clinic North America, 18, 523-536. World Health Organization (WHO). (1992). International Classification of Diseases, 10th Edition (ICD-10): Classification of mental and behavioral disorders. Geneva, Switzerland. Simons, R. C. , & Hughes, C. C. (1985 ). The culture-bound syndromes: Folk illnesses of psychiatric and anthropological interest. Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Education and Formal Agencies Essay

Education is a process to develop the intellectual faculties of the man. It makes the civilized, refined, cultured and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education is the only means. It makes a man perfect. It is systematic process through which a child or a man acquires knowledge, experience, skill and sound attitude. Every society gives importance to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solve all problems of life. Derivative Meaning of Education: The word ‘Education’ has been derived from different words. Latin word ‘E’ and ‘Duco’ means to draw out of the inner qualities of the child. Similarly, ‘educare’ means to nurture and to bring up while ‘educare’ means to draw out the qualities of a child to make a complete man. Various educationists have given their views on education. Some important definitions are: Gandhi – â€Å"By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in man – body, mind and spirit. † Tagore – â€Å"Education makes one’s life in harmony with all existence. † Dr. Zakir Husain – â€Å"Education is the process of the individual mind, getting to its full possible development. † Aristotle- â€Å"Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body. † Rousseau- â€Å"Education is the child’s development from within. † Spencer- â€Å"Education is complete living. † It can be estimated that education is a comprehensive term and it reflects one’s day-to-day life and an essential aspect for perfect balanced personality development. On other hand, the meaning of education can be understood from the narrower and broader point of view. Narrower meaning implies education is limited in educational institutions and broader meaning refers to life-long comprehensive process of education. Nature of Education: As the meaning of education, so its nature which is very complex. The natures of education are: (a) Education is life-long process- Education is life long process because every stage of life of an individual is important from educational point. (b) Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its activities through a systematic institution and regulation. (c) Education is development of individual and the society- It is called a force for social development, which brings improvement in every aspect in the society. (d) Education is modification of behavior- Human behavior is modified and improved through educational process. (e) Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behavior, activities; skills are trained in a constructive and socially desirable way. (f) Education is instruction and direction- It directs and instructs an individual to fulfill his desires and needs for exaltation of his whole personality. (g) Education is life- Life without education is meaningless and like the life of a beast. Every aspect and incident needs education for its sound development. (h) Education is continuous reconstruction of our experiences- As per the definition of John Dewey education reconstructs and remodels our experiences towards socially desirable way. (i) Education is a power and treasure in human being through which he is entitled as the supreme master on the earth. Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society and man. It is necessary for every society and nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its individuals. Educational agencies are the means to achieve some goal. The role and goal of agencies of education are the impart different types of education. An individual acquires knowledge and experiences through different ways. So these sources and ways of learning take place in different institution which exercise an educational influence on the child. So the agencies of education are called the chief communicating agents between individual and the goal of education. According, to the role, educational agencies are two types- Active and Passive and according to their form they are of three types i. e. formal, informal and non-formal. These types of agencies are explained in the following ways. (1) Active Agencies: Active agencies are those where both educator and educed are active participants. The action and reactions are entertained. The school, home, family are considered as the active agencies of education. Learning is a two-way process. Interaction is lively. (2) Passive agencies: Passive agencies are those which influence the learners but they are not influenced in return. The teaching-learning process is one way. These create public opinion and public control. If the leaner is interested he may learn. Radio, TV, press, Library are the examples of passive agencies. (3) Formal agencies: Formal agencies are more or less deliberately set up by the society. It has specific objectives, curriculum, examination system, etc. These are formal because they are pre-planned. The place and time are fixed. School, college, university are the examples of formal agencies of education. (4) Informal agencies: There are agencies which grow up spontaneously and also dissolve in the same way. They observe no formalities. They indirectly impart education. If one is interested one can learn. They include family, society, playground, professional organizations, youth activity groups, etc. (5) Non-formal agencies: It is the recent concept used in India. It helps the formal agencies of education. Those who are not getting chance in formal agencies of education like schools, colleges and universities may go through the non-formal agencies of education. The programmes are meant for out of school youths, adults, and women. Correspondence course, Open University and adult education include in the non-formal agencies of education.

Aquaintance Rape of College Students Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Aquaintance Rape of College Students - Essay Example ed to formulate competent policies and measures to tackle the issue; the police, public safety officers, the school management and other enforcement agencies need to stay vigilant to prevent and wipe away this menace from the American campuses. This essay focuses on the various aspects of the problem of acquaintance rape in the American campuses with special reference to articles entitled â€Å"The Problem of Acquaintance Rape of College Students† by Rana Sampson and â€Å"Acquaintance rape on college and university campuses† by Felicia F Romeo. Deriving conclusions from the two articles, the essay also seeks to offer some practical guidelines and advices for the fresh students who attend the American campuses. As Sampson (2002) points out, most of the rapes in the colleges go unnoticed and unreported and this gives the false impression that the current prevention programs are adequate to tackle the issue. However, researches and available statistics underline the fact that the current policies and prevention programs on the issue are quite insufficient and inadequate. Sampson also deals with the other related sexual assault crimes in the campus such as stranger rape, drug induced rape, sexual assault other than rape, use of verbal coercion to obtain sexual intercourse, indecent exposure in college libraries, â€Å"peeping Toms† on college campuses, obscene phone calls made to college students, sexual harassment and stalking of college students, and purports that acquaintance rape in colleges can be prevented only when there are comprehensive measures and coherent college strategies to prevent these related issues too ( Sampson, 2002, p. 1). The available statistics on acquaintance rape in American colleges and universities is quite alarming and shocking and this in turn calls for better effective measures to solve the problem. Sampson (2002) cites a number of statistical information on the issue which highlight the depth and seriousness of the issue. The findings

Pragmatism 2 questions, very urgent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pragmatism 2 questions, very urgent - Essay Example Rorty refers to the traditional identifications of truth as â€Å"only descriptions of the world† (Fukuyama). Rorty suggests that language should not be a sign of representation. By suggesting so, Rorty essentially wants to say that people should abandon the religion, and not worship God. Instead, human conscience, language and community should be understood as a joint outcome of luck and time according to Rorty. To put it in simple words, Rorty means to negate the existence of truth altogether. By doing so, Rorty tends to evaluate a belief on the basis of its effects instead of its causes. Rorty places more emphasis upon the association of the statements’ truth with their applicability in practical terms. In this way, Rorty’s suggestion is necessarily a restoration of pragmatism. Rorty’s truth is more of a metaphor which provides solutions for troubles, resolves the issues and eases the tension. In reality, this may not be always so. In fact, in a vast ma jority of cases, people lie in order to escape temporal damage. To them, truth is devastating and demeaning. Nonetheless, the importance of truth can not be denied in any case as the ultimate effects of truth are always better than those of lie. Truth does exist and is not just an outcome of certain events. I totally disapprove of Rorty’s atheism. Explain Rorty's view of education and discuss (in detail) at least one possible objection to Rorty's view.

What is the service encounter and how is it managed in the hospitality Essay

What is the service encounter and how is it managed in the hospitality industry - Essay Example â€Å"A service encounter is defined as the period of time that a customer interacts with a service†.The description of a service encounter is wide and comprises of a customer’s contact with customer-contact staff, machinery, computerized systems, physical services, and any other service related components (Massad and Crowston, 2003). Service encounter is a very crucial event for an organization while conducting a service oriented business. In its essence, it refers to any contact or interaction between the customer and the organization providing the service (Johnston and Clark, 2008). As previously mentioned, this interaction may be in various different forms. It could be a person to person interaction between a seller and the customer, a communication between the organization and the customer through an advertisement, or even the customer’s encounter with the actual product of the organization, that is, the service it is providing (Johnston and Clark, 2008).As previously mentioned, this interaction may be in various different forms. It could be a person to person interaction between a seller and the customer, a communication between the organization and the customer through an advertisement, or even the customer’s encounter with the actual product of the organization, that is, the service it is providing (Johnston and Clark, 2008... An interesting fact regarding services is that it is a personal experience. That is, a person goes through the entire process of the service himself and has a much closer contact with the organization and its personnel as compared to a tangible product, in which case a person might never come in contact with the organization itself (Johnston and Clark, 2008). Moreover, the services have a more personal impression on the customers (for example a medical examination with the doctor, a haircut with the barber, a dress design session with the tailor, a wedding plan with the event manager, a birthday party at a restaurant etc.) and have a deeper impact on their lives as compared to the tangible products (like soaps, shampoos, clothes, shoes, and even cars, etc.) Therefore, the customers are more particular about choosing the service provider and once they are satisfied, they tend to stick to a particular service provider and hesitate to switch (Kotler, Bowen and Makens, 2005). Thus, if a series of service encounters, also called a service relationship, turns out to be a positive experience for the customer with a particular service provider, he becomes loyal to that organization and tends to stick (Johnston and Clark, 2008). Furthermore, the customer would talk about it happily with his peers and colleagues, that is, a positive word of mouth will be spread about the service being provided. Hence they become a service encounter themselves for potential new customers. This can work wonders for the reputation for the service provider since when it comes to services, most people refrain from experimenting and blindly follow referrals from close friends and family (Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons, 2006). Service Encounter and Hospitality

Anthropology Short Response Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Anthropology Short Response Paper - Essay Example They point out there are many types of literacy, ranging from being able to sign one's name through to being able read contemporary literature. Ahearn adds both visual and cultural literacy to this broad definition as she argues that "Cultural literacy skills predispose people to read situations and texts in certain ways and constrain the types of interpretations they are likely to construct." (Ahearn: 46). Ahearn quotes Mike Baynham on the 'ideological' model of literacy, who states that literacy needs to be understood as a strategic, social practice which defines and confines the choices available to individuals within a particular society. Hence she evaluates the literacy of the Junigau in their own terms, at that moment in their development and history. We are shown the contrast between Sarita and Bir Bahadur's command of language particularly through Bir Bahadur's letters and the impact this has on their relationship as it develops. She examines the villagers' definition of romantic love through a variety of methods including letters, conversations and taped interviews.

Philosphy In Teaching Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosphy In Teaching - Personal Statement Example The four branches of philosophy- metaphysics, epistemology, logic and axiology can be utilized by a teacher in his job. Metaphysics can be used in teaching to answer the essential questions that arise in the mind of a student about life, reality and one’s existence. Metaphysics can be considered a starting point from which the education of a child starts. Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge and a teacher can use it by explaining the importance of education and knowledge to a student. Use of axiology and logic are the characteristics which every teacher should instill in his students and they are an essential part of learning. Psychological theories like constructivism have influenced modern educational practices. According to constructivism, the knowledge a person has is a result of his experiences. Teachers who practice constructivism have a more interactive environment in their classrooms and the students are usually aware of the learning objective planned by the teacher. A constructivist environment will lead the child to ask the right questions and sharpen his learning abilities. Constructivist teachers change themselves and the classroom environment according to the students as every student has different learning thresholds. Each child would have individual and undivided attention of the teacher and the students will be forced to think and question. John Dewey was a philosopher and an educationalist and has made great contributions to the field of education. He is mostly associated with learner centered education. It was his belief that schools were no more than social establishments where the way the children learned was through interaction. So he focused on the importance of interaction of students and curriculum. He suggested that the curriculums should be made in such a manner that every student gets to utilize his skills and it should be of interest to all students. His key ideas are individualism, readiness and pragmatism (Education.com) The modern curriculum is different from the traditional one that had been followed for centuries. Epistemological factors such as Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism are used in the making of the curricula. This includes that the students learn of the great achievements and success of the people in the West and learn how to solve their problems like people in t he West do. Every school’s curriculum stresses on teaching the students morals and ethics and teaching them to use logic in their daily lives. The curriculum is based on the student rather than the teacher. As a teacher, I will make sure that the environment where I am teaching is optimum for learning and that students actively participate in the class and ask questions. I should be able to make the students think on their own and ask questions, as well as take part in constructive arguments. Constructivist philosophy of teaching should be implemented in the classroom, and the class should be inspirational and motivational. Every student’s need should be catered and every student should get individual attention. The students should be given tasks which are of their interest and their level and no student should be left behind. Source of authority is where the power to rule comes from. In

A Doll's House initial thoughts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

A Doll's House initial thoughts - Essay Example Torvald. She is deeply concerned about the future of her children and their well being. The sacrificial nature of women in a marriage relationship is clearly illustrated by Mrs. Linde and Nora Helmer which offers a good lesson to women. Nora had to commit a very serious crime of forging her father’s signature so as to provide money to take her ailing husband to Italy so that he would recover. Mrs Linde had to be married to a man she didn’t love in her bid to generate funds in order to support her family which puts her at crossroads with Mr. Krogstad whom she truly loved. Submission in marriage is portrayed by Nora who seems totally submitted to her husband. However it is evident that there is a thin line between submissions and to be taken advantage of and therefore the story calls for caution in approaching such issues in marriage. It is worth noting that there are some mistakes that women need to be aware of in a marriage set up so that they do not cause disharmony in the family. Nora decides to keep the crime she committed as a top secret that her husband was not to be made aware of. In the long run, he decision to disclose the matter to Mrs. Linde leads her into serious problems when her husband gets to know the truth. Through this incident, women in a literature class are able to learn the pit holes that should be avoided so as to have harmonious relationships in the

Discussion Week 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion Week 5 - Essay Example They also tend to hold more than one view. Mindlessness on the other hand is an illusion people create for themselves that deceives then that they are in control of each and every situation which is not entirely the case. Mindlessness leads to an individual having a narrow self-image, they acquire learned helplessness and they often lose control leading to unintended cruelty. A social worker that is mindful is able to handle the challenges that come with their work. They are bale to for example convince patients about the importance of their health through appealing to their mindsets and using their innovation to assist them change their behavior for the better. By appealing to their minds, they will have led to a behavioral change (Langer, 2014). Social Workers are knowledgeable about human behavior across the life course. How does Life Course theory assist us in gaining, organizing and using this critical information? How is Life Course theory different from traditional life-span theories? Provide clear examples to distinguish theories. Life course theory discusses a variety of human concepts and do not limit themselves to only a particular course. They handle concepts such as the social changes, the structural contexts, and the historical as well as socioeconomic context of their lives over a period of time. These therefore means that in analyzing the behavior of people using this theory, the social workers will cut across different disciplines from history to biology, sociology, psychology and even economics as they all affect the human behavior throughout the course of their life. People are therefore able to compartmentalize the information they receive throughout their life and assist in being mindful of what they do and say. Traditional life span theories only focus on the developmental aspect of an individual’s life and hence they leave out other aspects that are important especially to the behavior of an

Computer Sciences and Information Technology Research Paper

Computer Sciences and Information Technology - Research Paper Example Computer science focuses on creating new concepts around the implementation and design of computing systems. Computer science incorporates mathematical concepts of computation as well as information. Further, Clark French (1) mentioned science can be described as the systematic study of the feasibility, expression, structure, and mechanization of the methodical procedures, also known as algorithms. These serve as the foundations for the gathering, processing, representation, communication, storage, and access to relevant data, irrespective of such gathered data is encoded in bytes or bits within the computer’s memories or just transcribed in the proteins and genes structure of the Human cellular structure. The main goal of computer science is to determine the best data processing systems computers can be efficiently and effectively automated and set into motion. Clark French (44) mentions computer science creates programs that improve the computer users’ output. With th e use of accounting software, the accountant’s prior tedious pencil and paper job is reduced by simply encoding the daily transactions. The accounting software will automatically perform all the other steps in the accounting cycle. The accounting software presents a balance sheet, income statement, statement of cash flows as well as breakdowns of receivables, breakdowns of payable amounts, and other accounting information, with just the click of a mouse. The picture development shop can use computer software such as Adobe Photoshop to enhance the output of the camera pictures. The researcher can use the Adobe reader to read pdf files uploaded on the internet. Computer science focuses on how the computer works. The focus includes determining which computer programs will work and which computer programs should be discarded. The computer scientists study which algorithms will produce an end product that is logical, realistic, and saves the computer usage time and money. The comp uter scientists implement the best algorithms that will offer a true as well as an efficient answer to a concrete or real-life problem. The computer scientists create computer program languages such as FoxPro, database III, word, and excel, photoshop, adobe reader, to ensure the specification as well as expression of the established algorithms (Toledo 47). The computer scientists design, build, as well as evaluate current and future computer operating software that can both effectively and efficiently perform prescribed program specifications. The computer scientists implement the preferred algorithm structures to significant software application domains. Michael Huth (259) insists the computer science student creates programs that will lessen the professional’s job. The medical doctor can trust the encoded computer report of the medical transcriptionist. The architect can use AutoCAD architect software to draw the minute details of a house or building. The car driver can use the computer system of the car to determine whether step on the gas or step on the brakes. Michael Huth (213) Computer scientists enter rewarding careers in many fields. One of the fields is software engineering. Another field of specialization is system administration. Another influential field is system management. A favorite field is a research and development to help the government in its drive to improve the lives of the constituents. Some of the computer scientists work in other related areas.  

Translation Technique by Molina and Albir Essay Example for Free

Translation Technique by Molina and Albir Essay Cet article a pour objectif de cerner la notion de technique de traduction entendue comme un des instruments d’analyse textuelle qui permet d’etudier le fonctionnement de l’equivalence par rapport a l’original. Nous rappelons tout d’abord les differentes definitions et classifications qui ont ete proposees ainsi que les confusions terminologiques, conceptuelles et de classification qui en ont decoule. Nous donnons ensuite notre definition de la technique de traduction en la differenciant de la methode et de la strategie de traduction et proposons une approche dynamique et fonctionnelle de celleci. Pour terminer, nous definissons chacune des diverses techniques de traduction existantes et en presentons une nouvelle classification. Cette proposition a ete appliquee dans le cadre d’une recherche sur la traduction des elements culturels dans les traductions en arabe de Cent ans de solitude de Garcia Marquez. ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to clarify the notion of translation technique, understood as an instrument of textual analysis that, in combination with other instruments, allows us to study how translation equivalence works in relation to the original text. First, existing definitions and classifications of translation techniques are reviewed and terminological, conceptual and classification confusions are pointed out. Secondly, translation techniques are redefined, distinguishing them from translation method and translation strategies. The definition is dynamic and functional. Finally, we present a classification of translation techniques that has been tested in a study of the translation of cultural elements in Arabic translations of A Hundred Years of Solitude by Garcia Marquez. MOTS-CLES/KEYWORDS translation technique, translation method, translation strategy, translation equivalence, functionalism 1. TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES AS TOOL FOR ANALYSIS: THE EXISTING CONFUSIONS The categories used to analyze translations allow us to study the way translation works. These categories are related to text, context and process. Textual categories describe mechanisms of coherence, cohesion and thematic progression. Contextual categories introduce all the extra-textual elements related to the context of source text and translation production. Process categories are designed to answer two basic questions. Which option has the translator chosen to carry out the translation project, i. e. , which method has been chosen? How has the translator solved the problems that have emerged during the translation process, i. e. , which strategies have been chosen? However, research (or teaching) requirements may make it important to consider textual micro-units as well, that is to say, how the result of the translation Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 498 11/21/02, 2:15 PM translation techniques revisited 499 functions in relation to the corresponding unit in the source text. To do this we need translation techniques. We were made aware of this need in a study of the treatment of cultural elements in Arabic translations of A Hundred Years of Solitude1. Textual and contextual categories were not sufficient to identify, classify and name the options chosen by the translators for each unit studied. We needed the category of translation techniques that allowed us to describe the actual steps taken by the translators in each textual micro-unit and obtain clear data about the general methodological option chosen. However, there is some disagreement amongst translation scholars about translation techniques. This disagreement is not only terminological but also conceptual. There is even a lack of consensus as to what name to give to call the categories, different labels are used (procedures, techniques, strategies) and sometimes they are confused with other concepts. Furthermore, different classifications have been proposed and the terms often overlap. This article presents the definition and classification of translation techniques that we used in our study of the treatment of cultural elements in Arabic translations of A Hundred Years of Solitude. We also present a critical review of earlier definitions and classifications of translation techniques. 2. THE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CLASSIFYING TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES 2. 1. Translation Technical Procedures in the Compared Stylistics. Vinay and Darbelnet’s pioneer work Stylistique comparee du francais et de l’anglais (SCFA) (1958) was the first classification of translation techniques that had a clear methodological purpose. The term they used was ‘procedes techniques de la traduction. ’ They defined seven basic procedures operating on three levels of style: lexis, distribution (morphology and syntax) and message. The procedures were classified as direct (or literal) or oblique, to coincide with their distinction between direct (or literal) and oblique translation. Literal translation occurs when there is an exact structural, lexical, even morphological equivalence between two languages. According to the authors, this is only possible when the two languages are very close to each other. The literal translation procedures are: †¢ †¢ †¢ Borrowing. A word taken directly from another language, e. g. , the English word bulldozer has been incorporated directly into other languages. Calque. A foreign word or phrase translated and incorporated into another language, e. g. , fin de semaine from the English weekend. Literal translation. Word for word translation, e. g. , The ink is on the table and L’encre est sur la table. Oblique translation occurs when word for word translation is impossible. The oblique translation procedures are: †¢ †¢ 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 Transposition. A shift of word class, i. e. , verb for noun, noun for preposition e. g. , Expediteur and From. When there is a shift between two signifiers, it is called crossed transposition, e. g. , He limped across the street and Il a traverse la rue en boitant. Modulation. A shift in point of view. Whereas transposition is a shift between grammatical categories, modulation is a shift in cognitive categories. Vinay and Darbelnet 499 11/21/02, 2:15 PM 500 Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 †¢ †¢ postulate eleven types of modulation: abstract for concrete, cause for effect, means for result, a part for the whole, geographical change, etc. , e. g. , the geographical modulation between encre de Chine and Indian ink. Intravaia and Scavee (1979) studied this procedure in depth and reached the conclusion that it is qualitatively different from the others and that the others can be included within it. Equivalence. This accounts for the same situation using a completely different phrase, e. g. , the translation of proverbs or idiomatic expressions like, Comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles and Like a bull in a china shop. Adaptation. A shift in cultural environment, i. e. , to express the message using a different situation, e. g. cycling for the French, cricket for the English and baseball for the Americans. These seven basic procedures are complemented by other procedures. Except for the procedures of compensation and inversion, they are all classified as opposing pairs. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 Compensation. An item of information, or a stylistic effect from the ST that cannot be reproduced in the same place in the TT is introduced elsewhere in the TT, e. g. , the French translation of I was seeking thee, Flathead. from the Jungle Book Kipling used the archaic thee, instead of you, to express respect, but none of the equivalent French pronoun forms (tu, te, toi) have an archaic equivalent, so the translator expressed the same feeling by using the vocative, O, in another part of the sentence: En verite, c’est bien toi que je cherche, O Tete-Plate. Concentration vs. Dissolution. Concentration expresses a signified from the SL with fewer signifiers in the TL. Dissolution expresses a signified from the SL with more signifiers in the TL, e. g. , archery is a dissolution of the French tir a l’arc. Amplification vs. Economy. These procedures are similar to concentration and dissolution. Amplification occurs when the TL uses more signifiers to cover syntactic or lexical gaps. According to Vinay and Darbelnet, dissolution is a question of langue and adaptation of parole, e. g. , He talked himself out of a job and Il a perdu sa chance pour avoir trop parle. The opposite procedure is economy, e. g., We’ll price ourselves out of the market and Nous ne pourrons plus vendre si nous sommes trop exigeants. Reinforcement vs. Condensation. These are variations of amplification and economy that are characteristic of French and English, e. g. , English prepositions or conjunctions that need to be reinforced in French by a noun or a verb: To the station and Entree de la gare; Shall I phone for a cab? and Voulez-vous que je telephone pour faire venir une voiture? Mallblanc (1968) changed Vinay and Darbelnet’s reinforcement for over-characterization, because he found it was more appropriate for the traits of French and German. He pointed out that German prepositions, such as, in can be translated into French as dans le creux de, dans le fond de, or, dans le sein de. Explicitation vs. Implicitation. Explicitation is to introduce information from the ST that is implicit from the context or the situation, e. g. , to make explicit the patient’s sex when translating his patient into French. Implicitation is to allow the situation to indicate information that is explicit in the ST, e. g. , the meaning of sortez as go out or come out depends on the situation. Generalization vs. Particularization. Generalization is to translate a term for a more general one, whereas, particularization is the opposite, e. g. , the English translation of guichet, fenetre or devanture by window is a generalization. Inversion. This is to move a word or a phrase to another place in a sentence or a paragraph so that it reads naturally in the target language, e. g. , Pack separately †¦ for convenient inspection and Pour faciliter la visite de la douane mettre a part †¦. 500 11/21/02, 2:15 PM translation techniques revisited 501 Table 1 Vinay and Darbelnet’s translation procedures Borrowing Bulldozer (E) ? Bulldozer (F) Calque Fin de semaine (F) ? Week-end (E) Literal translation L’encre est sur la table (F) ? The ink is on the table (E) Transposition Defense de fumer (F) ? No smoking (E) Crossed transposition He limped across the street (E) ? Il a traverse la rue en boitant (F) Modulation Encre de Chien (F) ? Indian Ink (E) Equivalence Comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles (F) ? Like a bull in a china shop (E) Adaptation Cyclisme (F) ? Cricket (E) ? Baseball (U. S) Compensation I was seeking thee, Flathead (E) ? En verite, c’est bien toi que je cherche, O Tete-Plate (F) Dissolution Tir a l’arc (F) ? Archery (E) Concentration Archery (E) ? Tir a l’arc (F) Amplification He talked himself out of a job (E) ? Il a perdu sa chance pour avoir trop parle (F) Economy Nous ne pourrons plus vendre si nous sommes trop exigeants (F) ? We’ll price ourselves out of the market (E) Reinforcement Shall I phone for a cab? (E) ? Voulez-vous que je telephone pour faire venir une voiture? (F) Condensation Entree de la garde (F) ? To the station (E) Explicitation His patient (E) ? Son patient / Son patiente (F) Implicitation Go out/ Come out (E) ? Sortez (F) Generalization Guichet, fenetre, devanture (F) ? Window (E) Particularization Window (E) ? Guichet, fenetre, devanture (F) Articularization. In all this immense variety of conditions,†¦ (E) ? Et cependant, malgre la diversite des conditions,†¦ (F) Juxtaposition Et cependant, malgre la diversite des conditions,†¦ (F) ? In all this immense variety of conditions,†¦ (E) Grammaticalization A man in a blue suit (E) ? Un homme vetu de blue (F) Lexicalization Un homme vetu de blue (F) ? A man in a blue suit (E) Inversion Pack separately [†¦] for convenient inspection (E) ? Pour faciliter la visite de la douane mettre a part [†¦] (F) 2. 2. The Bible translators From their study of biblical translation, Nida, Taber and Margot concentrate on questions related to cultural transfer. They propose several categories to be used 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 501 11/21/02, 2:15 PM 502 Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 when no equivalence exists in the target language: adjustment techniques, essential distinction, explicative paraphrasing, redundancy and naturalization. 2. 2. 1. Techniques of adjustment Nida (1964) proposes three types: additions, subtractions and alterations. They are used: 1) to adjust the form of the message to the characteristics of the structure of the target language; 2) to produce semantically equivalent structures; 3) to generate appropriate stylistic equivalences; 4) to produce an equivalent communicative effect. †¢ †¢ †¢ Additions. Several of the SCFA procedures are included in this category. Nida lists different circumstances that might oblige a translator to make an addition: to clarify an elliptic expression, to avoid ambiguity in the target language, to change a grammatical category (this corresponds to SCFA’s transposition), to amplify implicit elements (this corresponds to SCFA’s explicitation), to add connectors (this corresponds to SCFA’s articulation required by characteristics of the TL, etc. ). Examples are as follows. When translating from St Paul’s Epistles, it is appropriate to add the verb write in several places, even though it is not in the source text; a literal translation of they tell him of her (Mark I:30) into Mazatec would have to be amplified to the people there told Jesus about the woman, otherwise, as this language makes no distinctions of number and gender of pronominal affixes it could have thirty-six different interpretations; He went up to Jerusalem. There he taught the people some languages require the equivalent of He went up to Jerusalem. Having arrived there, he taught the people. Subtractions. Nida lists four situations where the translator should use this procedure, in addition to when it is required by the TL: unnecessary repetition, specified references, conjunctions and adverbs. For example, the name of God appears thirty-two times in the thirty-one verses of Genesis. Nida suggests using pronouns or omitting God. Alterations. These changes have to be made because of incompatibilities between the two languages. There are three main types. 1) Changes due to problems caused by transliteration when a new word is introduced from the source language, e. g., the transliteration of Messiah in the Loma language, means death’s hand, so it was altered to Mezaya. 2) Changes due to structural differences between the two languages, e. g. , changes in word order, grammatical categories, etc. (similar to SCFA’s transposition). 3) Changes due to semantic misfits, especially with idiomatic expressions. One of the suggestions to solve this kind of problem is the use of a descriptive equivalent i. e. , a satisfactory equivalent for objects, events or attributes that do not have a standard term in the TL. It is used for objects that are unknown in the target culture (e. g., in Maya the house where the law was read for Synagogue) and for actions that do not have a lexical equivalent (e. g. , in Maya desire what another man has for covetousness, etc. ) Nida includes footnotes as another adjustment technique and points out that they have two main functions: 1) To correct linguistic and cultural differences, e. g. , to explain contradictory customs, to identify unknown geographical or physical items, to give equivalents for weights and measures, to explain word play, to add information about proper names, etc. ; 2) To add additional information about the historical and cultural context of the text in question. 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 502 11/21/02, 2:15 PM translation techniques revisited 503 2. 2. 2. The essential differences Margot (1979) presents three criteria used to justify cultural adaptation. He refers to them as the essential differences. 1) 2) 3) Items that are unknown by the target culture. He suggests adding a classifier next to the word (as Nida does), e. g. , the city of Jerusalem or, by using a cultural equivalent (similar to the SCFA procedure of adaptation), e. g. , in Jesus’ parable (Matthew 7:16) to change grapes / thorn bushes and figs / thistles for other plants that are more common in the target culture. However, he warns the reader that this procedure is not always possible. Taber y Nida (1974) list five factors that have to be taken into account when it is used: a) the symbolic and theological importance of the item in question, b) its fequency of use in the Bible, c) its semantic relationship with other words, d) similarities of function and form between the two items, e) the reader’s emotional response. The historical framework. Here Margot proposes a linguistic rather than a cultural translation, on the grounds that historical events cannot be modified. Adaptation to the specific situation of the target audience. Margot maintains that the translator’s task is to translate and that it is up to preachers, commentarists and Bible study groups to adapt the biblical text to the specific situation of the target audience. He includes footnotes as an aid to cultural adaptation. 2. 2. 3. The explicative paraphrase Nida, Taber and Margot coincide in distinguishing between legitimate and illegitimate paraphrasing. The legitimate paraphrase is a lexical change that makes the TT longer than the ST but does not change the meaning (similar to the SCFA amplification / dissolution. The illegitimate paraphrase makes ST items explicit in the TT. Nida, Taber and Margot agree this is not the translator’s job as it may introduce subjectivity. 2. 2. 4. The concept of redundancy According to Margot (1979), redundancy tries to achieve symmetry between ST readers and TT readers. This is done either by adding information (grammatical, syntactic and stylistic elements, etc. ) when differences between the two languages and cultures make a similar reception impossible for the TT readers, or by suppressing information when ST elements are redundant for the TT readers, e. g. , the Hebrew expression, answering, said that is redundant in some other languages. This procedure is very close to SCFA’s implicitation / explicitation. 2. 2. 5. The concept of naturalization This concept was introduced by Nida (1964) after using the term natural to define dynamic equivalence (the closest natural equivalent to the source language message). Nida claims that naturalization can be achieved by taking into account: 1) the source language and culture understood as a whole; 2) the cultural context of the message; 3) the target audience. This procedure is very close to SCFA’s adaptation. 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 503 11/21/02, 2:15 PM 504 Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 Table 2. The Bible translators’ proposals Classifier The city of Jerusalem Alteration Messiah (E) ? Mezaya (Loma) Cultural equivalent grapes / thorn bushes and figs / thistles ? other plants that are more common in the target culture Equivalent description Synagogue ? The house where the law was read (Maya) Footnotes 2. 3. Vazquez Ayora’s technical procedures Vazquez Ayora (1977) uses the term operative technical procedures, although he sometimes refers to them as the translation method. He combines the SCFA prescriptive approach with the Bible translators, descriptive approach and introduces some new procedures: †¢ †¢ Omission. This is to omit redundancy and repetition that is characteristic of the SL, e. g. , to translate The committee has failed to act by La comision no actuo, omitting the verb to fail and avoiding over-translation: La comision dejo de actuar. Desplacement and Inversion. Displacement corresponds to SCFA’s inversion, where two elements change position, e. g. , The phone rang and Sono el telefono. Table 3 Vazquez Ayora’s contribution Omission The committee has failed to act (E) ? La comision no actuo (Sp) Inversion The phone rang (E) ? Sono el telefono (Sp) 2. 4. Delisle’s contribution. Delisle (1993) introduces some variations to the SCFA procedures and maintains the term procedure for Vinay and Darbelnet’s proposals. However, for some other categories of his own, he introduces a different terminology, e. g. , translation strategies, translation errors, operations in the cognitive process of translating†¦ He lists several of these categories as contrasting pairs. In his review of Vinay and Darbelnet, he proposes simplifying the SCFA dichotomies of reinforcement/condensation and amplification/economy and he reduces them to a single pair, reinforcement/economy. Reinforcement is to use more words in the TT than the ST to express the same idea. He distinguishes three types of reinforcement: 1) dissolution; 2) explicitation (these two correspond to their SCFA homonyms); and 3) periphrasis (this corresponds to SCFA’s amplification). Economy is to use fewer words in the TT than the ST to express the same idea. He distinguishes three types of economy: 1) concentration; 2) implicitation (these two correspond to their SCFA homonyms and are in contrast to dissolution and explicitation); and concision (this corresponds to SCFA’s economy and is in contrast to periphrasis). 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 504. 11/21/02, 2:15 PM translation techniques revisited 505 The other categories Delisle introduces are: †¢ †¢ †¢ Addition vs. Omission. He defines them as unjustified periphrasis and concision and considers them to be translation errors. Addition is to introduce unjustified stylistic elements and information that are not in the ST, omission is the unjustifiable suppression of elements in the ST. Paraphrase. This is defined as excessive use of paraphrase that complicates the TT without stylistic or rhetorical justification. It is also classified as a translation error. Delisle’s paraphrase and addition coincide with Margot’s illegitimate paraphrase. Discursive creation. This is an operation in the cognitive process of translating by which a non-lexical equivalence is established that only works in context, e. g. , In the world of literature, ideas become cross-fertilized, the experience of others can be usefully employed to mutual benefit is translated into French as, Dans le domaine des lettres, le choc des idees se revele fecond; il devient possible de profiter de l’experience d’autrui. This concept is close to Nida’s alterations caused by semantic incompatibilities and transliteration. Table 4 Delisle’s contributions Dissolution Reinforcement Explicitation Periphrasis (+) Addition (–) Paraphrase (–) Concentration Economy Implicitation Concession (+) Discursive creation Omission (–) Ideas become cross-fertilized (E) ? Le choc des idees se revele fecond (F) 2. 5. Newmark’s procedures Newmark (1988) also uses the term procedures to classify the proposals made by the comparative linguists and by the Bible translators, as well as some of his own. These are: †¢ †¢ †¢ 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 Recognized translation. This is the the translation of a term that is already official or widely accepted, even though it may not be the most adequate, e. g., Gay-Lussac’s Volumengesetz der Gase and Law of combining volumes. Functional equivalent. This is to use a culturally neutral word and to add a specifying term, e. g. , baccalaureat = French secondary school leaving exam; Sejm = Polish parliament. It is very similar to Margot’s cultural equivalent, and in the SCFA terminology it would be an adaptation (secondary school leaving exam / parliament) with an explicitation (French/ Polish). Naturalization. Newmark’s definition is not the same as Nida’s. For Nida, it comes from transfer (SCFA’s borrowing) and consists of adapting a SL word to the phonetic and morphological norms of the TL, e.g. , the German word Performanz and the English performance. 505 11/21/02, 2:15 PM 506 Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002. Translation label. This is a provisional translation, usually of a new term, and a literal translation could be acceptable, e. g. , Erbschaftssprache or langue d’heritage from the English heritage language. Newmark includes the option of solving a problem by combining two or more procedures (he called these solutions doubles, triples or quadruples). Newmark also adds synonymy as another category. Table 5 Newmark’s procedures Recognized translation Volumengesetz der Gase (G) ? Law of combining volumes (E). Functional equivalent Baccalaureat (F) ? Baccalaureat, secondary school leaving exam (E) Naturalization Performance (E) ? Performanz (G) Translation label Heritage language (E) ? Langue d’heritage (F) 3. CRITICAL REVIEW OF TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES As we have seen, there is no general agreement about this instrument of analysis and there is confusion about terminology, concepts and classification. The most serious confusions are the following. 3. 1. Terminological confusion and over-lapping terms Terminological diversity and the overlapping of terms make it difficult to use these terms and to be understood. The same concept is expressed with different names and the classifications vary, covering different areas of problems. In one classification one term may over-lap another in a different system of classification. The category itself is given different names, for example, Delisle uses procedure, translation strategy, etc. 3. 2. The confusion between translation process and translation result This confusion was established by Vinay y Darbelnet’s pioneer proposal, when they presented the procedures as a description of the ways open to the translator in the translation process. Nevertheless, the procedures, as they are presented in the SCFA do not refer to the process followed by the translator, but to the final result. The confusion has persisted and translation techniques have been confused with other translation categories: method and strategies. In some of the proposals there is a conceptual confusion between techniques and translation method. Vinay y Darbelnet introduced the confusion by dividing the procedures following the traditional methodological dichotomy between literal and free translation. As they worked with isolated units they did not distinguish between categories that affect the whole text and categories that refer to small units. Furthermore, the subtitle of their book, Methode de traduction, caused even more confusion. In our opinion (see 4. 1. ), a distinction should bemade between translation method, that is part of the process, a global choice that affects the whole translation, and translation techniques that describe the result and affect smaller sections of the translation. 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 506 11/21/02, 2:15 PM translation techniques revisited 507 The SCFA use of the term procedures created confusion wirh another category related to the process: translation strategies. Procedures are related to the distinction between declarative knowledge (what you know) and procedural or operative knowledge (know-how) (Anderson 1983). Procedures are an important part of procedural knowledge, they are related to knowing how to do something, the ability to organise actions to reach a specific goal (Pozo, Gonzalo and Postigo 1993). Procedures include the use of simple techniques and skills, as well as expert use of strategies (Pozo y Postigo 1993). Strategies are an essential element in problem solving. Therefore, in relation to solving translation problems, we think a distinction should be made between techniques and strategies. Techniques describe the result obtained and can be used to classify different types of translation solutions. Strategies are related to the mechanisms used by translators throughout the the whole translation process to find a solution to the problems they find. The technical procedures (the name itself is ambiguous) affect the results and not the process, so they should be distinguished from strategies. We propose they should be called translation techniques. 3. 3. The confusion between issues related to language pairs and text pairs Vinay y Darbelnet’s original proposal also led to a confusion between language problems and text problems. Their work was based on comparative linguistics and all the examples used to illustrate their procedures were decontextualized. In addition, because they gave a single translation for each linguistic item, the result was pairs of fixed equivalences. This led to a confusion between comparative linguistic phenomena (and the categories needed to analyse their similarities and differences) and phenomena related to translating texts (that need other categories). The use of translation techniques following the SCFA approach is limited to the classification of differences between language systems, not the textual solutions needed for translation. For example, SCFA’s borrowing, transposition and inversion, or, Vazquez Ayora’s omission, should not be considered as translation techniques. They are not a textual option open to the translator, but an obligation imposed by the characteristics of the language pair. 4. A DEFINITION OF TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES Our proposal is based on two premises: 1) the need to distinguish between method, strategy and technique; 2) the need for an dynamic and functional concept of translation techniques. 4. 1. The need to distinguish between method, strategy and technique We think that translation method, strategies and techniques are essentially different categories. (Hurtado 1996). 4. 1. 1. Translation method and translation techniques. Translation method refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out in terms of the translator’s objective, i. e. , a global option that affects the whole text. There are several translation methods that may be chosen, depending on the aim of 01. Meta 47/4. Partie 1 507 11/21/02, 2:15 PM 508 Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 the translation: interpretative-communicative (translation of the sense), literal (linguistic transcodification), free (modification of semiotic and communicative categories) and philological (academic or critical translation) (see Hurtado Albir 1999: 32). Each solution the translator chooses when translating a text responds to the global option that affects the whole text (the translation method) and depends on the aim of the translation. The translation method affects the way micro-units of the text are translated: the translation techniques. Thus, we should distinguish between the method chosen by the translator, e. g. , literal or adaptation, that affects the whole text, and the translation techniques, e. g. , literal translation or adaptation, that affect microunits of the text. Logically, method and functions should function harmoniously in the text. For example, if the aim of a translation method is to produce a foreignising version, then borrowing will be one of the most frequently used translation techniques. (Cf. This has been shown in Molina (1998), where she analyses the three translations into Arabic of Garcia Marquez’s A Hundred Years of Solitude. Each translation had adopted a different translation method, and the techniques were studied in relation to the method chosen). 4. 1. 2. Translation strategy and translation techniques Whatever method is chosen, the translator may encounter problems in the translation process, either because of a particularly difficult unit, or because there may be a gap in the translator’s knowledge or skills. This is when translation strategies are activated. Strategies are the procedures (conscious or unconscious, verbal or nonverbal) used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when carrying out the translation process with a particular objective in mind (Hurtado Albir 1996, 1999). Translators use strategies for comprehension (e. g. , distinguish main and secondary ideas, establish conceptual relationships, search for information) and for reformulation (e. g. , paraphrase, retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close to the original). Because strategies play an essential role in problem solving, they are a central part of the subcompetencies that make up translation competence. Strategies open the way to finding a suitable solution for a translation unit. The solution will be materialized by using a particular techniqu.

Black Codes Laws

Black Codes Laws Black Codes Black codes were slavery just in a different name, before black codes there was slavery but black codes. Black codes were an attempt from the whites to recreate slavery. Black codes were new because it limited the rights of black people and segregated them from the white. When slavery ended it gave the Freemans just a little bit of equality, they got just a little bit more choices about where they work and what they own. The short term impact was that it gave the Freedmans limited rights and the long term change was equality, and after black codes segregation started. Black codes were really bad but it was a lot better than what they went through which was slavery. Black codes gave more rights to black which was slowly and slowly starting to be taken away as southerners started inventing their own harsh black codes. One by one southerners created their own black codes (Perritano 21). African Americans were allowed to do things during black codes that they werent allowed to do in slavery which were things like they were allowed to own property, enter into contracts. Marry but not marry a white person because it was against the black codes and they would be sentenced to prison for life if they do so which did happen, and they were also allowed to sue in court, and also be sued. Although it was better than slavery it wasnt enough because black codes increasing and increasing, getting harsher and harsher. Black codes were essentially designed to return the social and economic order of the south to a facsimile of antebellum times (Jones 93.)When they wrote the new laws they used the words slave or freedmans replacing the word Negro. The laws were different in each state, In writing the new laws, postwar southern legislatures often turned to the old slave codes (Jones 93). Freedmans werent allowed to do a lot of things such as own homes, land, or any kind of property. They werent allowed to marry a white person, it was forbidden. They had to move aside when a white women were on the sidewalk, They had to remove their hats when they were wearing it near a white person was near them, in their presence to show respect, They had to address white people appropriately, They didnt have the right to hold a public office, they werent allowed to participate in riots it was illegal and police could even arrest them for just standing in groups, they couldnt have public education. , they had to obey commands that white people gave to them Illegal for freedmen to preach the gospel without a license (Jones 94).They didnt have the right to serve in jury. Any black found after 10 at night with a note were sent to prison. They werent allowed to sell liquor, or allowed to use offensive language or gestures, it was illegal. It was Illegal for them to carry firearms. Their kids didnt have the right to go to public schools, in some towns they werent even allowed to own rooms. In South Carolina they couldnt open a store unless they had a license that the judge gave them, most importantly, they werent allowed to vote and last but not the least they werent allowed to leave their plantations. The whites just kept going with these codes because they believed in white supremacy. There were a lot of punishments if the freedman didnt follow the harsh codes that were stacked up against them. If the freedmans didnt follow the penal code they had to pay a fine, If the freeman refuses to pay, he will be hired out to any white man who will pay (Jones 94). If a freedman does marry a white person theyll be sent to prison for the rest of their life. If an apprentice escapes and is caught master may reclaim him (Jones 94). Anyone who doesnt follow the law was deemed a vagrant .All vagrants were fined up to $50 and jailed up to 10 days. If a white male employs or aids a freedman that ran that ran away, would have to pay up to $200 penalty. They would be imprisoned for selling things without permission. Employer was legally allowed to punish the freedmans in anyway a parent would to their kid for example: beating, whipping, branding and etc. Black codes only gave African Americans just a little, tiny bit of freedom the laws were different in each state and the black codes made it so that freedmans had to work because in many states if you didnt have a job you would be arrested for vagrancy. By 1866 black codes were suspended by federal officials who thought that these codes were too harsh and African Americans should have the same equality as the whites. Segregation was a huge factor, segregation effected freemen hugely they didnt have the same facilities the white people did such as the voting rights, they werent allowed to work in high level jobs, and public transportation, because they werent allowed to sit in the same places as white people. They werent allowed to eat in the same places as the whites or drink in the same fountains that white people drank in. Segregation started after black codes because of the fact that whites didnt like black having the same equality and opportunities as them. Even the schools were unfair, cause they went to separate schools in some schools only blacks were allowed and on some school only whites were allowed. African childrens didnt have the same opportunities for education as the white kids, whatever the white childrens had African kids had less or none at all because they went to separate schools, and white kids had more facilities and better education system than the blacks. For 75 years southerners whites used these laws to bar blacks from restaurants, hotels, trains, and other places (Perritano 24).Segregation was a separation of people from different racial group. Segregation was started by the whites because they didnt like African Americans having the same equal rights as them. When the civil war ended and slavery with it black people didnt know how to react, they had been part slavery for so long they didnt know that, that day would come and they didnt know what to make of it. They were very confused and didnt know what to do. The African Americans were not only confused but also worried about whose going to feed them, and their childrens, where are they going to work, How are they going to live after slavery ended they got a lot more rights but at first they didnt know what to make of it, what they should do, if they should enjoy that theyre now free or be worried about how they are going to live their new life. Black people didnt have the 3 main things they needed to have, which they got after segregation and black codes ended the 3 more important things are freedom because black wasnt able to provide for themselves economically, they werent allowed to participate in things like politics, they were also not allowed to be with anyone or be in a relationship with anyone without the consent of their master. After slave codes ended freedmen were able to provide their families economically because they had freedom, they were free. Black codes kept racism undead. Education was a huge factor because freedmans wanted to learn, they wanted to be educated, and they were willing to learn for happiness. The freedmens had no way of doing anything they couldnt even get a simple job to feed their family because of the way they were made, because of the color of their skin. Even though the African Americans wanted to study they couldnt because they couldnt do any more than agricultural work because that was their only task during slavery, and after freedom they still only knew how to do that. Freedmans first needed to get educated than needed to get a home. Black people had so many different problems that they stayed in low class society for so long because of all the problems they faced but chance to get educated was given to the freedmans later on, and it even provided free food and even helped newly freed slaves find jobs. Black codes gave them more freedom but it only made their life harder because they had to go by the laws and if they didnt there were tons of laws that were just plain unfair such as they could be arrested for vagrancy (being poor) or they would be commanded into involuntary servitude, and the Ku Klux Klan only made the freedmans life even worse because they hung black blacks because they werent in agreement to slavery. The Ku Klux Klan supported white supremacy, anti- Semitism, anti- Catholicism, racism, anti-communism, and nativism. They got away with crimes to ethnic groups and didnt get punished for it, not only that but they also attacked Jews, Catholics, and other groups. They would randomly take black guys or people walking and hang them; they would also injure people that spoke out against them. They would shoot at black peoples houses and cars that didnt do anything. The Ku Klux Klan has done a lot of horrible stuff but they rarely got arrested, it was very difficult to find them. Their fear that theyre going to get caught made them never stay at a same place for too long. The Ku Klux Klan got weaker and weaker as years went by because freedmans got stronger and stronger. As the years went by the police forces also got better, and stronger. Strangely, many tried to bring them back in power. However, the Ku Klux Klan never got strong as it was in the first few years when it started. The KKK dressed in white robes because white is the color of purity. The KKK was trying to develop 100% Americanism, which means they were against Catholics, Jews, blacks, immigrants, and unions. The KKK was trying to say that blacks cannot be Christians. They would burn the crosses to not disrespect but more like to say go Christianity, and sadly KKKs are still around despite everything. The happiest day for African people/ freedmans were when the segregation finally ended which was in July 2, 1964 they got better opportunities than they had, equal opportunities as the whites. Their kids had better education system because they were now studying in the same place as whites, their work they had better chances of finding a job now that they had equal opportunities they were paid the same amount plus things like eat they could eat in the same place as white people and drink in the water fountain that only whites could drink in, they could sit in the bus. Last and definitely not the least they were now allowed to vote, which was the ultimate proof that A frican Americans had the same equality as the white people when they were allowed to vote. From all the facts its a definite fact that best part of black codes was when it was over, and when segregation ended. Segregation was probably the biggest impact that happened to African Americans after slavery because after segregation was over so many newly freed slaves got freedom, and more importantly they got the right to vote, and they also got the equality they wanted and always dreamt for.

Absurdism In The Stranger And Metamorphosis English Literature Essay

Absurdism In The Stranger And Metamorphosis English Literature Essay The theme of absurdism used by Franz Kafka and Albert Camus does full justice to bring out the pathos in both The Outsider and The Metamorphosis by Albert Camus and Franz Kafka. They establish the unsettling existence of the both the protagonists. The present situation of the narrators brings to life incidents that justify their unpleasant situations and what they are going through in their respective lives. Where existentialism questions mans existence in a particular social system; absurdist investigates characters that are placed in society that is devoid of God and how syllogism and parody loom large over the entire situation. Hence The Outsider and Metamorphoses have existentialism and absurdism as the philosophical tools that take these stories ahead. Camus concretizes an absurdly dramatic story of a man who has no emotions in him evidently in the opening lines Mother died today. Or maybe yesterday, I dont know. I had a telegram from the home: Mother passed away. Funeral tomorrow. Yours sincerely. That doesnt mean anything. It may have been yesterday. He- does not even feel obliged to justify his reason behind such odd and discourteous avoiding of any emotional involvement. Speaking briefly with the director of the home, Mersault tells him that he did not feel any guilt at having sent his mother away. He even declines an invitation to view the body, but keeps vigil with it overnight, in accordance with the custom. When asked by the undertaker how old his mother was, he replies Fairly, for in truth he doesnt know her exact age. His going for a swim with a woman of his acquaintance at an inopportune time proves once again futility of his life. As an embodiment of absurdism, Mersault doesnt see any need to fulfill or dispel the discomfort from the minds of the people as his nature was very offending to other people. He seemed completely inhuman, and never believed it was important to live up to the expectations of others and follow etiquette. According to me, every human being goes through the kind of unpleasant and embarrassing situations Mersault and Gregor face but it principally depends on how a writer decides to detail and sketch these characters. There is a funeral procession, in the heat of the day, across the parched, sun-drenched landscape, and once again, Mersault is disturbed by the light, the sun, and the heat, and feels unable to concentrate. This uncanny effect to the point of blinding ones vision evinces unjustifiable discomfort Mersault exudes towards the society. The Outsider is set in Algiers, where our protagonist Mersault, who was a bachelor, is leading a life that questions his existence. He does not show any interest in his job and does not believe in socializing with other people around him. As the story goes ahead, the reader gets to see the quirkiness of Mersault towards the world with conflicting emotions that make him commit a deadly crime. This marked nature of Mersault is brought out in the narrative in many incidents in the book; one of them being in chapter four where he is not at all concerned about Raymond torturing his wife. He responds matter of factlyAt about 3 in the morning there was a knock on my door and Raymond came in. I didnt get up. I sat at the edge of my bed. He didnt say anything for a minute and I asked him how it had gone. He told me that he had done what he wanted to do but shed slapped him and so hed beaten her up. Id seen the rest. I told him I thought that this time shed really been punished and he ought to be pleased. Mersaults brusque attitude towards other people around him reckons him as an outcast. I feel that the writers philosophical stance is unique, as he puts immense emphasis on the belief of absurdism and we need to understand what absurdism is ? Absurdist fiction is the manifestation of certain beliefs that dominated the works of a number of playwrights during the middle of the 19th century. This form of fiction implies that in a world that is devoid of God, the existence of human being shall have no strong foundation, it would be meaningless. The absurd elements in such plays and fiction were the fact that man has been thrust into a world where he cannot survive on his own instincts but is maneuvered by a force invisible to him. He is caught up in paradoxical situations and finds no reprieve by communicating or logical action. His actions and dialogues turn out to be a mockery of his own existence. The best part about the narrative is that it does not preach with a message but at the same time does tend to ask us some important questions about humans and their social existence. The narrative is kept simple but is compelling nevertheless. Therefore, the work is a reflection of Camuss moral axiom. Like Camus, Kafka too was existentialist and adapted to an absurdist way in carrying the narrative of his stories ahead as traces of his style are evident in his letter to Max Brod. In Franz Kafkas The Metamorphosis, the absurdist and existentialist elements form the main parts of Kafkas narrative. The story begins with the line When Gregor Samsa awoke from troubled dreams one morning; he found that he had been transformed in his bed into an enormous bug. After realizing that his life would never be the same again Gregor starts realizing certain truths about his existence which had not come to his realization before. He starts to reflect on his own being. Till the day before he had been a hardworking salesman who looked after his family but now he cannot continue the same life anymore. Now after Gregors transformation his parents and sister realize that they shall now have to look after Gregor and start making a living of their own. This leads Gregor into a state of depression which he can only observe but cannot do anything about it. His family is robbed of happiness and normalcy and though they are trying their best to cope with it, their disparity is clearly evident in these lines of the second chapter- Now his sister working with her mother had to do the cooking too; of course that did not cause her much trouble since they hardly ate anything. Gregor was always hearing one of them pleading in vain with one of the others to eat and getting no answer except thanks, Ive had enough or something similar. They all knew the unpleasantness they had to confront but none of them had an answer to it. I think that both the stories are existentialist and absurd in their narratives, and they both create a long lasting impact on readers and create a serious sense of debate about human existence and the acceptance of social rules. The Outsider is a well juxtaposed prose of absurdism and existentialism. Mersault is a social outcast and his further actions only make him an object of ridicule in his own society. One cannot see any kind of redemption for Mersault in his predicament; he is doomed and destined for a fatal end. The parts of the story where Mersault is wallowing in self doubt are existentialist in theme and the parts where he is unsuccessfully trying to find out the answers that can legitimize his actions are absurdist. Kafkas Metamorphoses sees Gregor going through an amalgamation of emotional, physical and mental dilemmas. His physical transformation into a vermin is the main culprit. This transformation creates an emotional and mental mayhem in him. It can be said about Gr egor that he has the answers but is in search of the questions. So, the Metamorphoses begins in an existentialist way but ends with an absurdist plot.

Gender Roles in Alice Munro’s Boys and Girls Essay -- Boys and Girls E

In Alice Munro’s short story â€Å"Boys and Girls,† our narrator is a young farm girl on the verge of puberty who is learning what it means to be a â€Å"girl.† The story shows the differing gender roles of boys and girls – specifically that women are the weaker, more emotional sex – by showing how the adults of the story expect the children to grow into their respective roles as a girl and a boy, and how the children grow up and ultimately begin to fulfill these roles, making the transition from being â€Å"children† to being â€Å"young adults.† The adults in the story expect the children to grow into the gender role that their sex has assigned to them. This is seen in several places throughout the story, such as when the narrator hears her mother talking to her father, â€Å"I heard my mother saying, ‘Wait till Laird gets a little bigger, then you’ll have a real help’†¦. ‘And then I can use her more in the house’† (Munro 495), when her grandmother comes to visit and tells her all the things girls aren’t supposed to do, and when she is roughhousing with her little brother and the farm hand, Henry Bailey, tells her, â€Å"that there Laird’s gonna show you, one of these days† (Munro 497). While the narrator disagrees with the adults, and tries not to conform to their expectations, at the end of the story both she and her brother end up acting exactly as a child of their age and gender would be expected to act: the preteen girl crying with no apparent logical re ason, and the young boy excited to have been included with the men, and talking about the thrilling tale of slaying a horse. At the beginning of the story, the narrator and her brother are just â€Å"children,† but by the end of it the narrator is a â€Å"girl† and Laird is a â€Å"boy†; they have become very d... ...le older and a chance to show off her bravery emerges in the form of Flora making her escape, she doesn’t even consider playing the part of the hero, she simply follows her father’s orders, and even that she goes back on when she leaves the gate open. She doesn’t daydream of action and excitement anymore; she instead imagines herself in a love story. Throughout the story, the different roles and expectations placed on men and women are given the spotlight, and the coming-of-age of two children is depicted in a way that can be related to by many women looking back on their own childhood. The narrator leaves behind her title of â€Å"child† and begins to take on a new role as a young, adolescent woman. Works Cited Munro, Alice. â€Å"Boys and Girls.† Introduction to Literature. Ed. Isobel M. Findlay et al. 5th ed. Canada: Nelson Education, 2004. 491-502. Print.

Bermuda Triangle :: Devils Triangle Paranormal

Bermuda Triangle, region of the western Atlantic Ocean that has become associated in the popular imagination with mysterious maritime disasters. Also known as the Devil's Triangle, the triangle-shaped area covers about 1,140,000 sq km (about 440,000 sq mi) between the island of Bermuda, the coast of southern Florida, and Puerto Rico. The sinister reputation of the Bermuda Triangle may be traceable to reports made in the late 15th century by navigator Christopher Columbus concerning the Sargasso Sea, in which floating masses of gulfweed were regarded as uncanny and perilous by early sailors, others date the notoriety of the area to the mid-19th century, when a number of reports were made of unexplained disappearances and mysteriously abandoned ships. The earliest recorded disappearance of a United States vessel in the area occurred in March 1918, when the USS Cyclops vanished. The incident that consolidated the reputation of the Bermuda Triangle was the disappearance in December 1945 of Flight 19, a training squadron of five U.S. Navy torpedo bombers. The squadron left Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with 14 crewmen and disappeared after radioing a series of distress messages, a seaplane sent in search of the squadron also disappeared. Aircraft that have disappeared in the area since this incident include a DC-3 carrying 27 passengers in 1948 and a C-124 Globemaster with 53 passengers in 1951. Among the ships that have disappeared was the tanker ship Marine Sulphur Queen, which vanished with 39 men aboard in 1963. Books, articles, and television broadcasts investigating the Bermuda Triangle emphasize that, in the case of most of the disappearances, the weather was favorable, the disappearances occurred in daylight after a sudden break in radio contact, and the vessels vanished without a trace. However, skeptics point out that many supposed mysteries result from careless or biased consideration of data. For example, some losses attributed to the Bermuda Triangle actually occurred outside the area of the triangle in inclement weather conditions or in darkness, and some can be traced to known mechanical problems or inadequate equipment. In the case of Flight 19, for example, the squadron commander was relatively inexperienced, a compass was faulty, the squadron failed to follow instructions, and the aircraft were operating under conditions of deteriorating weather and visibility and with a low fuel supply. Bermuda Triangle :: Devil's Triangle Paranormal Bermuda Triangle, region of the western Atlantic Ocean that has become associated in the popular imagination with mysterious maritime disasters. Also known as the Devil's Triangle, the triangle-shaped area covers about 1,140,000 sq km (about 440,000 sq mi) between the island of Bermuda, the coast of southern Florida, and Puerto Rico. The sinister reputation of the Bermuda Triangle may be traceable to reports made in the late 15th century by navigator Christopher Columbus concerning the Sargasso Sea, in which floating masses of gulfweed were regarded as uncanny and perilous by early sailors, others date the notoriety of the area to the mid-19th century, when a number of reports were made of unexplained disappearances and mysteriously abandoned ships. The earliest recorded disappearance of a United States vessel in the area occurred in March 1918, when the USS Cyclops vanished. The incident that consolidated the reputation of the Bermuda Triangle was the disappearance in December 1945 of Flight 19, a training squadron of five U.S. Navy torpedo bombers. The squadron left Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with 14 crewmen and disappeared after radioing a series of distress messages, a seaplane sent in search of the squadron also disappeared. Aircraft that have disappeared in the area since this incident include a DC-3 carrying 27 passengers in 1948 and a C-124 Globemaster with 53 passengers in 1951. Among the ships that have disappeared was the tanker ship Marine Sulphur Queen, which vanished with 39 men aboard in 1963. Books, articles, and television broadcasts investigating the Bermuda Triangle emphasize that, in the case of most of the disappearances, the weather was favorable, the disappearances occurred in daylight after a sudden break in radio contact, and the vessels vanished without a trace. However, skeptics point out that many supposed mysteries result from careless or biased consideration of data. For example, some losses attributed to the Bermuda Triangle actually occurred outside the area of the triangle in inclement weather conditions or in darkness, and some can be traced to known mechanical problems or inadequate equipment. In the case of Flight 19, for example, the squadron commander was relatively inexperienced, a compass was faulty, the squadron failed to follow instructions, and the aircraft were operating under conditions of deteriorating weather and visibility and with a low fuel supply.